Report examines gender segregation on labour market

Since the beginning of the 1990s, the Swedish labour market has become less gender-segregated. Notably, women have increasingly entered male-dominated occupations that require higher education. However, much remains to be done, such as persuading men too to broaden their occupational choices, or focusing on the role that employers play in perpetuating segregation. These are among the findings of a government-appointed special commissioner, Åsa Löfström, who issued her report in April 2004.

In February 2003, the government appointed Åsa Löfström, an associate professor at Umeå University, as a special commissioner with a remit to increase knowledge of gender segregation in the Swedish labour market, examine how such segregation has changed since the beginning of the 1990s and highlight the mechanisms that contribute to upholding it (SE0303101N). Efforts undertaken to reduce gender segregation were also to be examined, as well as the Swedish situation in an international perspective. In April 2004, the results were presented in a report entitled 'The gender-segregated labour market' (Den könsuppdelade arbetsmarknaden, SOU 2004:43).

Gender-segregated labour market

The report states that while 'primary' gender segregation has ceased to exist, in that women are no longer excluded from paid labour, gender segregation in today's labour market is still influenced by these historical roots, built on women’s exclusion as an organising principle. It has taken time for women to gain access to both the educational system and paid labour on the same conditions as men. Now, however, women have caught up with men - and even surpassed them when it comes to higher education. This means that the reasons why women are still treated as less competent in traditional male jobs must be looked for elsewhere, Ms Löfström claims. She points as possible explanations to power relations and the persistence of a number of myths as regards what women can and cannot do - eg that women do not fit in, are not physically strong enough, do not want to be bosses, cannot be away from the family, have children etc.

The report considers the decreasing birth rate in Sweden during the 1990s as women’s response to the many employers that have failed to see that women have entered and will remain on the labour market to an extent equal to men. Theories that build upon the different roles of women and men in the household as explanations for women’s and men’s roles on the labour market have, it is stated, become increasingly questioned, not least since they have empirically been shown to be inaccurate. They still exist however, and still contribute to the cementing of gender segregation, according to the study.

Ms Löfström concludes that since the beginning of the 1990s, gender segregation has decreased, mainly since women have broadened their occupational choices and entered previously male-dominated areas that demand a higher education. The labour market today is said to be divided in two parts: one which is desegregating continuously; and one which changes only slowly.

'Male' occupations that do not require any higher education still show the same gender-segregated pattern and since this segment is much bigger, in terms of the number of employees, 'the process of desegregation will be slow' (according to Ms Löfström in a paper presented at the 25th European Advisory Committee on Statistical Information in the Economic and Social Spheres [CEIES] seminar in Stockholm on 21-22 June 2004, entitled 'Gender statistics. Occupational segregation: extent, causes and consequences'). Furthermore, men’s interest in all forms of traditional female occupations is still almost non-existent, the report states. It is most vital, the commissioner says, that the rigidities in the labour market linked to gender are removed. Policy and political measures should ensure that men’s and women’s free choices and true preferences are secured.

Even in the segment of the labour market where there is desegregation due to women’s increasing higher education, too little has happened and success is limited, the study finds. The report goes so far as to warn that if the increasing number of highly educated women do not find jobs that match their education, society runs the risk of creating a 'highly-educated female proletariat'

Earlier efforts to deal with gender segregation

In the mid-1980s, the government provided budgetary means for efforts to break with traditional gender-based occupational choices, primarily among women. The aim was to raise the interest among girls in natural sciences and technological education. This aim was to a large extent fulfilled, at least in so far as the number of girls in natural science education has increased. In 2002, according to the commissioner's report, almost 45% of the students in the natural science programme in Swedish secondary schools were girls, compared with 35% in 1994. Also higher up in the educational system, women have increased their share of participants in natural science and technological courses.

The Labour Market Board (Arbetsförmedlingen, AMS) was given the task of carrying out work aimed at reducing gender segregation and increasing equality among women and men. Several projects were started during the 1990s to stimulate and motivate women (mainly) to enter non-traditional and not 'gender-typical' jobs. Ms Löfström concludes that the results here are less obvious and harder to interpret. Furthermore, many of the projects started have been process-oriented and their results therefore cannot be seen yet. The labour market situation has also varied substantially during the past decade, which makes the results even harder to interpret.

Suggestions for the future

The commissioner's report suggests a number of measures, which can be divided into the following categories: measures to influence that attitudes of, and choices made by, individual women and men; political directives to be implemented by various public authorities, such as the Labour Market Administration (Arbetsmarknadsverket); and research.

Influencing attitudes

It is said to be vital to alter the attitudes among men to occupations in areas such as childcare, care for the elderly and healthcare. Earlier efforts aimed mainly at influencing women’s attitudes to, for example, technical educations have been successful, so why not use the same concept to raise boys’ interest in the social sector, Ms Löfström asks. Summer schools could be organised for boys in these areas but for this to be successful, male teachers/role models/mentors have to be engaged. Workers in typically female occupations such as nursing assistants should be be given career opportunities to raise their status.

The degree of specificity of the title and description of an occupation is seen as vital for its status. The commissioner here points to vast discrepancies between the classifications of typically male and female occupations. Women’s occupations are often less specifically classified and therefore women appear more easily replaceable and flexible, it is claimed. Statistics Sweden (Statistiska centralbyrån, SCB) therefore ought to be given the task of looking into the 'standard for Swedish occupational classifications' (Standard för svensk yrkesklassificering, SSYK) from a gender perspective, the commissioner suggests.

Political directives

The Labour Market Administration should be given the task of examining the role of employers in ending the gender-segregated labour market, the commissioner recommends. The focus has so far almost solely been on the labour supply, and has thus tended to neglect the importance of labour demand in gender segregation. The report points to the often low interest among employers in 'non-traditional' recruitment: 'One could well imagine that only when employers clearly demonstrate that they are altogether open to recruitment from all groups on the labour market, will job-seekers get the necessary incitements to look for more non-traditional educations and occupations.'

Research

The report suggests that research ought to be initiated in a number of areas, including research that focuses on the division of labour in the household, aiming at helping both men and women to be parents and also take part in paid labour. Research into wages and wage setting, and its importance for gender segregation and the possibilities of desegregation, should also be initiated. Finally, the effects of the 'value discrimination' that exists on a labour market that is divided into typically male and female occupations should be studied.

Commentary

The special commissioner's report has succeeded in presenting a picture of the gender segregation on today’s labour market in Sweden that is both thorough and broad. Although gender segregation has decreased, much remains to be done, and the commissioner's suggestions sometimes manage to turn the perspective around. For instance she concludes that one cannot overcome gender segregation by influencing only half the labour force - ie the women - as has so far been common practice. Also, while there has been much focus on labour supply, less has been said about labour demand. It may well be time to look also at the employers’ role in maintaining or ending the gender-segregated labour market.

Also notable is the report's comparison of several occupations as defined in the SSYK system of standard occupational classification. While there are some 30 different specifications given for the occupation 'machine operator' there is only one for 'nursing assistant/nurse’s assistant'. Machine operators are defined as being specialised in different fields, depending on the branch of industry (eg.'machine operators - printing' or 'machine operators - rubber products'), while nursing assistants do not seem to be specialised at all. This could be altered, as Ms Löfström shows, for instance by specifying 'nursing assistant -geriatrics', 'nursing assistant - surgery', 'nursing assistant - psychiatry' etc. As it now is, many female jobs appear to lack specific competences and thus appear as if anyone can do them. The example cited here may also be important for the wage gap between men and women (SE0402103F) and, in particular, the wage gap between men’s and 'women’s' occupations (see Åsa Löfström's paper at the June CEIES seminar, cited above). (Ann-Britt Hellmark, Arbetslivsinstitutet)