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COVID-19
It has been two years since the Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) hit Europe and many of the response measures necessary to deal with the pandemic, from working from home to social distancing, are now part of our everyday lives. Almost every aspect of our working and family lives has changed and, likewise, all of Eurofound’s research areas have been marked by COVID-19. Not only did we roll out five rounds of the now landmark Living, working and COVID-19 online survey to analyse the rapid change that is ongoing, but the analyses in our existing surveys and flagship reports have specifically looked at the impacts of the pandemic across the board.
The wide-ranging impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the lives of people across Europe is increasingly apparent and enduring. The fifth round of Eurofound’s e-survey ran from 29 March until 2 May 2022 and analysis is currently underway. It will chart the latest developments, looking at how life has changed in Europe over the past two years, and providing the most up-to-date picture for policymakers as they respond to the challenges of Living, working and COVID-19.
Unfortunately, findings to date paint a bleak picture. In spring 2021, mental well-being reached its lowest level across all age groups since the onset of the pandemic and young people were particularly affected, trust in institutions plummeted and across Europe citizens felt the divisive social and economic fallouts with a dwindling number viewing crisis support measures as fair and efficient. However, Eurofound’s role is not to simply establish what has taken place, but to also provide evidence-based analysis that can assist with policy formulation. We have highlighted that COVID-19 could be a catalyst for fundamental change that will define the future of Europe, and that rather than ‘recovering’ from a crisis like we did a decade ago, we can instead reset our expectations for our lives and reshape our understanding of what we can achieve in cooperation.
The long-term impacts of the pandemic on life and the world of work will be explored in our upcoming research, with an immediate focus on how the lockdowns have changed the labour market, how digitisation has changed the workplace, how COVID-19 has impacted business continuity and how crises impact equality and cohesion in Europe. The outbreak of COVID-19 in Europe may be moving gradually into history, but the long-term impacts of the pandemic on our work and lives is just beginning.
Read the latest report, infographic andcommentary on how COVID-19 is impacting the EU, and tune in to our new podcast series on topics linked with the impact of the pandemic:
See the most recent blogs from our researchers, defining the labour market, quality of life and working conditions trends that we are currently researching, as well as the possible policy pathways for the future.
This report describes the implementation and changing features of job retention schemes in the EU between 2020 and 2022. In response to the COVID-19 health emergency, EU governments swiftly deployed...
The fast and steady recovery in employment following the COVID-19 pandemic in the EU benefited from proactive policy responses to the crisis and from resilient labour markets. Almost 90% of...
This report examines trends in income inequality in the EU and explores whether the middle class is becoming smaller due to disparities in household disposable income.
12 juuli 2024
Publication
Research report
EU context
The impact of the COVID-19 crisis, and particularly the response measures taken by national governments, have already profoundly affected the regular life and work of people in the EU. National and EU authorities have launched a range of support measures, not least to relieve the immediate pressure experienced by specific sectors, many self-employed people and SMEs.
While the EU does not have direct legislative power over health matters (this being the responsibility of individual Member States), the response of the EU – and particularly the European Commission – has focused on stabilising the EU economy, putting in place border control measures, reinforcing our public health sectors and now securing the production of vaccines for citizens.
The Commission’s response to the Coronavirus consists of three main pillars. The first pillar covers the medical field, working on prevention and procurement and relief measures and foresight. The second covers mobility, from transportation to travel advice, including Schengen-related queries. The third covers the economy, looking in-depth at various business sectors – such as tourism or transport, and trade, as well as value chains and macro-economy.
On 10 February 2021, the Commission welcomed the European Parliament’s approval of the €672.5 billion Recovery and Resilience Facility available to EU Member States to support reforms and investments under NextGenerationEU, the temporary instrument designed to boost recovery and help Europe emerge stronger from the crisis. The Facility is closed linked with the Commission priorities for a greener, more digital and more resilient Europe.
The European Central Bank initiated a €750 billion Pandemic Emergency Purchase Programme (PEPP) in March 2020 to counter the serious risks to the monetary policy transmission mechanism, increasing the initial amount by €600 billion on 4 June 2020 and by €500 billion on 10 December 2020, for a new total of €1,850 billion.
The European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) is the EU Agency providing an overview of the COVID-19 situation, as well as current risk assessments on their website.
Drawing on its Network of Eurofound Correspondents, while also adapting the focus of its in-house resources, Eurofound has begun to monitor the critical changes the crisis has brought to the labour market, working conditions and quality of life across the EU in the short term and aims to map how different Member States have responded to the challenges that have emerged.
Eurofound has taken a multi-pronged response in terms of data collection. This includes:
an online survey on Living, working and COVID-19, launched in April 2020
a database of national-level policy responses, EU PolicyWatch, for which a mapping report is available
These projects complement a range of ongoing or new research on the implications for quality of life, employment and working life, as outlined above.
E-survey
Infographic 2021
Eurofound’s unique e-survey, Living, working and COVID-19, provides a snapshot of the impact of the pandemic on people’s lives across the EU and beyond, with the aim of helping policymakers to bring about an equal recovery from the crisis. Five rounds of this large-scale online survey have been carried out to date. This allows for comparison between the first round launched on 9 April 2020, when most Member States were in lockdown, and the second round in July 2020, when society and economies were slowly reopening. A third round in March 2021 coincided with another critical period as countries dealt again with various levels of lockdown to curb the spread of new virus strains, while vaccination programmes were also being rolled out. A fourth round in October-November 2021, recontacting panel respondents only, makes it possible to track developments since the start of the pandemic.
A fifth round, which ran from 29 March to 2 May 2022, will chart the latest developments, looking at how life has changed in Europe over the past two years and providing the most up-to-date picture for policymakers as they respond to the challenges around recovering from the pandemic.
An overview report for the first two rounds is available, as well as a factsheet for the third round, along with a range of accompanying data pages.
Data from the fourth round, which was a panel-only survey, will be used in forthcoming reports on investigating the gender divide and trust and discontent during COVID-19. Sign up to receive a notification when these reports are published in 2022.
The report provides an analysis of the key issues raised by the results in the first and second rounds of the survey. It highlights the key pressure points caused by the crisis and details the impact on different groups while also exploring the evolution of these changes over the three-month period. The survey examines quality of life and quality of society during COVID-19, including life satisfaction, happiness and optimism, health and levels of trust in institutions. It covers people’s work situation, their work–life balance and use of teleworking during this crisis. The second round also examines job quality, health and safety at work, online schooling, use of online services, and the extent to which respondents had requested and availed of government support schemes.
The third round of the e-survey sheds light on the social and economic situation of people after nearly a full year of living with COVID-19 restrictions, with a focus on those groups hardest hit. It includes additional questions on attitudes and willingness to be vaccinated. As well as presenting an overview of the main findings, it tracks the developments across the 27 EU Member States since the survey was first launched in April 2020.
Drawing on the unique results of this pan-European survey and building on previous research, Eurofound aims to provide critical support to policymakers as they face the challenges ahead.
EU PolicyWatch
Working life in EU Member States has faced enormous pressure due to the rapid spread of COVID-19, several lockdown situations and the precautionary measures taken by governments.Based on research from the Network of Eurofound Correspondents, Eurofound has been looking at the reactions of European institutions and responses by EU social partners to those challenges.
Eurofound’s database EU PolicyWatch collates information on the responses of government and social partners to the crisis. It also gathers examples of company practices aimed at mitigating the social and economic impacts of COVID-19. A mapping report is now available.
In reaction to COVID-19, many countries have introduced measures such as the deferral of debt and mortgage repayments. Eurofound could explore moving beyond its recent research into household over-indebtedness, to provide an overview of such measures and whether these were applied to the general population or only to certain groups.
Drawing on its Network of Eurofound Correspondents, while also adapting the focus of its in-house resources, Eurofound has begun to monitor the critical changes the crisis has brought to the labour market, working conditions and quality of life across the EU in the short term and aims to map how different Member States have responded to the challenges that have emerged.
Eurofound has taken a multi-pronged response in terms of data collection. This includes:
an online survey on Living, working and COVID-19, launched in April 2020
a database of national-level policy responses, EU PolicyWatch, for which a mapping report is available
These projects complement a range of ongoing or new research on the implications for quality of life, employment and working life, as outlined above.
E-survey
Eurofound’s unique e-survey, Living, working and COVID-19, provides a snapshot of the impact of the pandemic on people’s lives across the EU and beyond, with the aim of helping policymakers to bring about an equal recovery from the crisis. Five rounds of this large-scale online survey have been carried out to date. This allows for comparison between the first round launched on 9 April 2020, when most Member States were in lockdown, and the second round in July 2020, when society and economies were slowly reopening. A third round in March 2021 coincided with another critical period as countries dealt again with various levels of lockdown to curb the spread of new virus strains, while vaccination programmes were also being rolled out. A fourth round in October-November 2021, recontacting panel respondents only, makes it possible to track developments since the start of the pandemic.
A fifth round, which ran from 29 March to 2 May 2022, charts the latest developments, looking at how life has changed in Europe over the past two years of closures and restrictions. It also sheds light on a new uncertain reality caused by the war in Ukraine which started in February 2022, record high inflation and sharp rises in the cost of living. In parallel, the European Training Foundation (ETF) used a shortened questionnaire to field a pilot e-survey in 10 EU neighbouring countries: Albania, Georgia, Jordan, Kosovo, Lebanon, Moldova, Morocco, North Macedonia, Tunisia and Palestine. It provides the most up-to-date picture for policymakers as they respond to the challenges around recovering from the pandemic.
E-survey findings
A joint Eurofound-ETF factsheet presenting final results in the EU27 and 10 additional countries was published in December 2022, following on from the first results from the fifth round published in July 2022.
10% of respondents who had been employed before the pandemic were unemployed in spring 2021.
Two-thirds of those employees who have teleworked partially or exclusively during COVID-19 would prefer a regular hybrid working arrangement if there are no restrictions in place.
Data from the fourth round, which was a panel-only survey, were used in 2022 reports on investigating the gender divide and trust and discontent during COVID-19.
The first report provides an analysis of the key issues raised by the results in the first and second rounds of the survey. It highlights the key pressure points caused by the crisis and details the impact on different groups while also exploring the evolution of these changes over the three-month period. The survey examines quality of life and quality of society during COVID-19, including life satisfaction, happiness and optimism, health and levels of trust in institutions. It covers people’s work situation, their work–life balance and use of teleworking during this crisis. The second round also examines job quality, health and safety at work, online schooling, use of online services, and the extent to which respondents had requested and availed of government support schemes.
The third round of the e-survey sheds light on the social and economic situation of people after nearly a full year of living with COVID-19 restrictions, with a focus on those groups hardest hit. It includes additional questions on attitudes and willingness to be vaccinated. As well as presenting an overview of the main findings, it tracks the developments across the 27 EU Member States since the survey was first launched in April 2020.
The fifth round focuses particularly on questions related to housing, living and financial conditions, and reflections on work–life balance including the division of labour at home. It also sheds light on a new reality: one of uncertainty caused by the war in Ukraine, record high inflation and sharp rises in the cost of living.
Drawing on the unique results of this pan-European survey and building on previous research, Eurofound aims to provide critical support to policymakers as they face the challenges ahead.
EU PolicyWatch
Working life in EU Member States has faced enormous pressure due to the rapid spread of COVID-19, several lockdown situations and the precautionary measures taken by governments.Based on research from the Network of Eurofound Correspondents, Eurofound has been looking at the reactions of European institutions and responses by EU social partners to those challenges.
Eurofound’s database EU PolicyWatch collates information on the responses of government and social partners to the crisis. It also gathers examples of company practices aimed at mitigating the social and economic impacts of COVID-19. A mapping report is now available. The ERM restructuring support instruments database continues to be updated with cases of domestic support for restructuing companies and their affected employees. The database is now integrated within the EU PolicyWatch.
In reaction to COVID-19, many countries have introduced measures such as the deferral of debt and mortgage repayments. Eurofound could explore moving beyond its recent research into household over-indebtedness, to provide an overview of such measures and whether these were applied to the general population or only to certain groups.
Eurofoundi poolt 2020. aasta alguses algatatud uuringu „Elamine, töötamine ja COVID-19“ eesmärk on kajastada pandeemia ulatuslikku mõju ELi kodanike tööle ja elule. Eurofoundi uuringu viies voor, mis viidi läbi kevadel...
Eurofoundi veebiuuringu viies voor, mis oli avatud 25. märtsist kuni 2. maini 2022, heidab valgust kogu Euroopa inimeste sotsiaalsele ja majanduslikule olukorrale kaks aastat pärast seda, kui COVID-19 esmakordselt Euroopas...
Käesolevas aruandes käsitletakse COVID-19 kriisi mõju eakate kodanike elukvaliteedile, sealhulgas mõju nende heaolule, rahaasjadele, tööhõivele ja sotsiaalsele kaasatusele. Aruandes uuritakse mõju hooldusteenuste kasutamisele ja eakate sõltumist muust toetusest. Aruandes tutvustatakse...
Eurofoundi e-küsitluse kolmas voor, mis toimus 2021. aasta veebruaris ja märtsis, heidab valgust peaaegu terve aasta COVID-19 piirangutega elanud Euroopa rahvastiku sotsiaalsele ja majanduslikule olukorrale. Aruanne analüüsib peamisi leide ning jälgib...
This report presents the findings of the Living, working and COVID-19 e-survey, carried out by Eurofound to capture the far-reaching implications of the pandemic for the way people live and...
Disclaimer: Please note that this report was updated with revised data (specifically for Bulgaria) on 23 March 2021.Aruande eesmärk on hinnata COVID-19 kriisi algset mõju Euroopa tööhõivele (kuni 2020. aasta II...
11 märts 2021
Publication
Research report
Current and ongoing research
In light of COVID-19, Eurofound has adjusted its research to:
monitor the evolving situation and collect dataregarding the impact of this unprecedented situation on the lives of Europeans via an online survey, as well as measures taken by policy actors to combat the effects of the pandemic on employment, working conditions and living conditions
provide an analysisof specific topics , such as employment effects, effects on specific sectors, effectiveness of specific measures (for example, short-time work schemes).
Initially, more in-depth analysis in the form of an ad hoc report focuses on evaluating employment effects and looking at measures implemented with a view to limiting the negative effects.
In the medium to longer term, Eurofound is already actively exploring other areas where it could possibly adjust its current and future work to respond effectively to the situation.
Labour market
Over the years, Eurofound has established itself as a key resource on employment and labour markets. Previous and ongoing research includes the European Restructuring Monitor (ERM), which monitors the employment impact of large-scale restructuring events in Europe. Eurofound will build on the work it currently carries out in the area of labour market monitoring and analysis. The ERM will adjust its focus to include monitoring of the impact of COVID-19 on the employment effects of large-scale restructuring events in Europe.
Efforts will also be made to adapt elements of the existing European Jobs Monitor (EJM) to further understand the changing employment structure in Europe in view of the crisis.
Platform workhas been an important topic over the past few years and has gained in importance during the present crisis. Most recently, Eurofound published an article highlighting the sick pay void for platform workers due to the Coronavirus, which draws information from Eurofound’s Platform economy repository. This database is continuously updated with information on how the crises impacts platform work and platform workers. A 2019 policy brief addressed the employment and working conditions of selected types of platform work.
Eurofound will be looking to analyse new developments, such as the increased demand for some types of platform work and associated health risks for workers, as well as the decrease in demand for other types of platform work and associated earnings and protection gap.
Both the EU and national governments have introduced a variety of support measures aimed at averting a new recession. Eurofound will continuously update the ERM support instruments database and add a specific focus on COVID-19 measures.
The fact sheets in the ERM events database are updated on a weekly basis to show redundancies and the database is now searchable for input related to COVID-19.
Ongoing work on examining the social partners’ involvement in the elaboration and implementation of support measures will expand to include the extraordinary policies and measures introduced to combat the impact of COVID-19. An assessment of their effectiveness will be carried out using the Network of Eurofound Correspondents.
Workplace issues and working life
One of the most radical changes for many people during COVID-19 has been the switch to teleworking, due to the introduction of quarantine and safety measures. The subject of teleworking is covered in Eurofound’s COVID-19 e-survey and the findings show that teleworking has taken off in all EU countries with over a third of those in employment starting to work remotely as a result of the pandemic, with obvious consequences for work–life balance. Future research will look at the effects of the rise in teleworking and ICT-based mobile work and implications for work–life balance, as well as the right to disconnect.
With increasing calls for the introduction of a minimum income or the use of other tools as a stabiliser for future crises, Eurofound proposes taking steps to analyse this in greater detail.
In light of the launch of the fourth European Company Survey in autumn 2020, follow-up interviews will be carried out to map challenges reported by companies and the measures introduced.
Societal impact, quality of life and public services
Eurofound has carried out a range of research on youth and specifically on young people not in employment, education or training (NEETs), who emerged as one of the most vulnerable groups following the Great Recession. Considering the current crisis, Eurofound will examine the impact on young people as part of its ongoing study on NEETs, as well as examining the implications of the unprecedented increase in digital solutions (e-learning, e-healthcare, e-entertainment/leisure). Eurofound’s COVID-19 e-survey already shows the serious impact yet again on young people, as they cope with the lowest levels of mental well-being and high levels of loneliness. Young men also appear most affected by job loss in the current crisis.
It will also expand its work on societal change and trust in institutions – in particular, trust in national governments – in light of the impact of COVID-19. Eurofound’s COVID-19 e-survey covers trust in institutions and findings show that trust in the EU has recovered since the low levels recorded at the outset of the pandemic, while trust in governments has declined in most countries. Highest trust levels lie with healthcare systems in combating the COVID-19 crisis.
Existing work carried out in the area of social protection could also be extended to address how new provisions complement existing social protection cover and the costs and benefits of such initiatives.
Research continues in this topic on a variety of themes, which are outlined below with links to forthcoming titles.
Eszter Sandor is a senior research manager in the Social Policies unit at Eurofound. She has expertise in survey methodology and statistical analysis, has worked on the preparation...
Daphne Ahrendt is a senior research manager in the Social Policies unit at Eurofound. Since joining Eurofound in 2013, her work has covered a broad range of social policy areas. At...
This report describes the implementation and changing features of job retention schemes in the EU between 2020 and 2022. In response to the COVID-19 health emergency, EU governments swiftly deployed job retention schemes to preserve employment, support businesses and maintain individual incomes.
The fast and steady recovery in employment following the COVID-19 pandemic in the EU benefited from proactive policy responses to the crisis and from resilient labour markets. Almost 90% of regions across the EU had exceeded their pre-pandemic employment levels by 2022; however, significant regional
This report examines trends in income inequality in the EU and explores whether the middle class is becoming smaller due to disparities in household disposable income.
This report investigates the political dimensions of social cohesion in Europe, offering a 20-year perspective derived from 10 rounds of the European Social Survey. It scrutinises trends and regional variations in political participation, examining correlations with levels of institutional distrust
Employment levels in the EU27 recovered from the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020–2021 much faster than they did after the global financial crisis in 2008–2010. This was despite the immediate job loss effects of the two crises being of comparable scale. Demographic change is affecting labour
The various economic and social shocks of the past decade and a half – most recently the COVID-19 pandemic – have ongoing consequences for the living standards and prospects of Europeans, and sometimes these outcomes have been uneven across age groups. Social policies – such as those in the areas of
Using data from the European Working Conditions Telephone Survey 2021 and building on a theoretical model that differentiates between job stressors and job resources, this report examines key psychosocial risks in the workplace and their impact on health.
During the COVID-19 pandemic, a diverse collection of workers ensured the functioning of our societies. In a time of crisis, they maintained access to healthcare, long-term care and other essential goods and services, including food, water, electricity, the internet and waste treatment.
Selles aruandes käsitletakse COVID-19 kriisi mõju sotsiaalteenustele ELis. Kuigi pandeemia mõjutas sotsiaalteenuseid negatiivselt, õpetas see siiski, kuidas neid uutele väljakutsetele ja sotsiaalsetele riskidele reageerimiseks kohandada. Üks õppetund on näiteks, et tuleks välja töötada poliitikad
Ajal, mil majandus hakkab COVID-19 pandeemiast taastuma, suureneb tööjõupuudus hoolimata Ukraina sõja mõjust energia- ja kaubahindadele. See hõlmab töötajate puudust teatud sektorites ja kutsealadel, kus see on juba mõnda aega esinenud, kuid mida kriis on veelgi süvendanud. Aruandes vaadeldakse
Since 2011, the Restructuring support instruments database of the EU PolicyWatch has been collecting information on measures that assist companies and workers to anticipate and manage restructuring. This article looks at measures in the database aimed at supporting employees and employers during the
Eurofound presentation to the European Parliament Committee on Employment and Social Affairs (EMPL), Ivailo Kalfin, Executive Director, Eurofound, 24 January 2023.
The rise in cost of living and energy poverty: Social impact and policy responses. 14 October 2022, Informal Meeting of Employment and Social Affairs Ministers (EPSCO). Presentation by Ivailo Kalfin, Executive Director, Eurofound.
Throughout 2021, the second year of the COVID-19 pandemic, specific occupational health and safety rules were reintroduced due to increases in infection rates. Mandatory face masks, physical distancing and hygiene measures were enforced, and the recommendation to telework was largely re-instated in
Two years after the start of the COVID-19 pandemic, social dialogue continues to make a significant contribution to helping economies recover. Managing the crisis led many governments to rely on tripartite social dialogue to develop the policies that would mitigate the negative impact of the
In the second pandemic year 2021, access to one’s place of work was increasingly dependent on providing proof of either having been tested, vaccinated or recovered from COVID-19 in several countries. Specific professional groups – such as essential workers and workers in critical infrastructure –
The COVID-19 pandemic prompted a surge in telework, with dramatic increases in the number of employees working from home (teleworking) in many European countries. What for many employees started out as a mandatory move seems to have transformed into a preference among the majority for part-time or
Eurofound welcomed Ivailo Kalfin to his new role as Executive Director on 1 June. After one month in the job, he reflects on the challenges facing the EU, how they will impact on the work of Eurofound and his priorities for shaping the Agency over the next five years.
The COVID-19 crisis had a significant impact on wages and wage setting across Europe in 2020. The uncertain economic scenario, together with the difficulties inherent in online bargaining, led to a general postponement of collective agreements to 2021, especially at company level. Real wages
The dawn of 2022 brought muted optimism to a Europe beginning to emerge from the COVID-19 pandemic, and the progress of vaccination programmes worldwide brought hope. Government and EU support during the pandemic had kept unemployment at bay, averting the widescale collapse of businesses. In step wi
Lower levels of health, increasing financial pressure and a significant degree of unmet healthcare: these are the findings of the fifth round of the Living, working and COVID-19 e-survey: Living in a new era of uncertainty – a report that presents an overview of responses from over 200,000 people
Rising energy prices are putting more people under increased financial pressure and at greater risk of energy poverty. In this data story, we take a closer look at the data from the fifth round of the Living, working and COVID-19 e-survey to explore the extent of the issue and the threat of energy
Trust in national institutions has declined across the EU over the past two years. Driven by increasingly difficult economic circumstances and unreliable news sources, even people who previously expressed higher trust levels – such as those in financially secure positions – have become less trusting
Today is Europe Day, and one hundred young people from Ireland and Ukraine will be marking the event at Eurofound, in peaceful south Dublin. Europe Day has traditionally been seen as a celebration of peace and unity in Europe, but, unfortunately, it must be marked differently this year. Europe Day 2
When it comes to Europe’s COVID-19 recovery and its aspiration to build back a more resilient society, the so-called green and digital transitions have dominated EU policy discussions. And as Eurofound made preparations for the 2022 Foundation Forum – a unique occasion for high-level debate on the s
We need to study and understand the blow Europe’s youth have suffered from the COVID-19 pandemic, in order to adjust recovery and resilience measures to their needs: without prioritising young people in the present, we have little hope for the future.
Following the declines in employment rates and working hours across Europe in 2020, economies began to show signs of recovery during the first quarter of 2021. The gradual rekindling of economic activity has led to a surge in demand for workers and reawakened concerns over labour shortages. Difficul
Vaccine acceptance is key to the success of COVID-19 vaccination campaigns worldwide. Worryingly, over a quarter of people living in Europe are hesitant about taking a COVID-19 vaccine, and the level of hesitancy is especially high among heavy users of social media. The spread of misinformation on s
COVID-19 has shown that some things can hit us out of the blue. The pandemic sent a shockwave through businesses all over the world and has brought massive changes to work organisation, internal communication and day-to-day operations for many companies. Doubtless, the depth of the pandemic’s impact
This factsheet will provide a snapshot of society and quality of life in spring 2024. It will look at a number of issues, including mental well-being, trust, access to healthcare, social support and coping with increases in the cost of living. The analysis is based on the Living and working in the
