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Orario di lavoro

L’orario di lavoro designa qualsiasi periodo durante il quale un lavoratore presta servizio restando a disposizione del datore di lavoro e svolgendo le proprie attività o mansioni, conformemente alle leggi e/o prassi nazionali. Gli orari di lavoro variano per i lavoratori con diverse funzioni o in diverse fasi della vita: nel determinare queste differenze è particolarmente importante il genere.

Topic

Recent updates

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In this episode of Eurofound Talks Mary McCaughey speaks with Eurofound Research Manager Tina Weber about new research on the right to disconnect, the evolution of the right to disconnect...

Podcast

EU context

L’orario di lavoro costituisce un elemento fondamentale della vita lavorativa e la sua regolamentazione è stata al centro di dibattiti politici, economici e sociali a livello nazionale e dell’UE. Per salvaguardare la salute e la sicurezza dei lavoratori, la direttiva UE concernente l’organizzazione dell’orario di lavoro impone a tutti gli Stati membri di garantire norme minime in materia di organizzazione dell’orario di lavoro per tutti i lavoratori in tutta l’UE, che comprendono durata massima settimanale (fissata a 48 ore), periodi minimi di riposo e pause, ferie annuali e aspetti del lavoro notturno e del lavoro a turni.

Il lavoro di Eurofound

Da molti anni, Eurofound raccoglie informazioni su vari aspetti dell’orario di lavoro e sulle relative implicazioni per le condizioni di lavoro e la qualità della vita di uomini e donne nell’UE. Gli studi di Eurofound sull’orario di lavoro mirano a migliorare la comprensione di come lo stesso è organizzato e di come questo influenzi l’occupazione, la produttività, il benessere e l’equilibrio tra lavoro e vita privata. I dati sull’orario di lavoro contrattuale e il ruolo delle parti sociali sono stati pubblicati regolarmente e sono stati anche analizzati di recente da una prospettiva a lungo termine. La ricerca sull’orario di lavoro degli uomini rispetto a quello delle donne dimostra che i primi hanno molte più probabilità di lavorare più a lungo e che le seconde sono più propense a dedicare più tempo al lavoro domestico non retribuito.

Regolamentazione e organizzazione dell’orario di lavoro

La regolamentazione dell’orario di lavoro contribuisce a incrementare l’equilibrio tra lavoro e vita privata e anche la partecipazione al mercato del lavoro. In un clima economico in rapida evoluzione, le aziende e i lavoratori hanno bisogno di flessibilità. Eurofound ha analizzato il nesso tra orario di lavoro ed equilibrio tra vita professionale e vita privata nell’arco della vita.

La ricerca ha esaminato i vari aspetti dell’organizzazione dell’orario di lavoro nonché le implicazioni per la produttività e le condizioni di lavoro. Poiché l’organizzazione dell’orario di lavoro sta cambiando, Eurofound insieme all’Organizzazione internazionale del lavoro ha esaminato di recente gli effetti del telelavoro e del lavoro mobile grazie alle TIC sull’orario di lavoro di chi ha sottoscritto questo genere di contratti.

Adottando una prospettiva a lungo termine sull’orario di lavoro, uno studio recente ha esaminato l’evoluzione dell’orario di lavoro disciplinato da un contratto collettivo nell’UE all’inizio del XXI secolo. L’accento viene posto in particolare su cinque settori: chimico, metalmeccanico, bancario, commercio al dettaglio e pubblica amministrazione. La relazione descrive i regimi istituzionali della regolamentazione e valuta i cambiamenti nell’orario di lavoro convenuto per contratto e nei normali orari di lavoro tra il 1999 e il 2014.

L’orario di lavoro nell’analisi delle indagini

Le tre principali indagini di Eurofound forniscono dati su questioni relative all’orario di lavoro.

L’ indagine europea sulle condizioni di lavoro (European Working Conditions Survey, EWCS) analizza l’orario di lavoro da diverse prospettive. Nella sesta EWCS del 2015, la qualità dell’orario di lavoro era uno dei sette indicatori di qualità del lavoro in generale. È stata utilizzata per misurare l’incidenza di un orario di lavoro lungo, le fasce orarie per le pause, l’orario di lavoro atipico, l’organizzazione dell’orario di lavoro e la flessibilità, e come questi fattori abbiano un impatto sulla salute e il benessere dei lavoratori. I dati mostrano che il 43 % dei lavoratori ha orari di lavoro molto regolari.

Sfruttando i dati della sesta EWCS, Eurofound ha di recente esaminato le forme di organizzazione dell’orario di lavoro per un lavoro sostenibile . L’analisi prende in esame i nessi tra le forme di organizzazione dell’orario di lavoro, l’equilibrio tra vita professionale e vita privata e le preferenze in materia di orario di lavoro nonché la salute e il benessere dei lavoratori. Valuta anche quanto siano sostenibili le attuali condizioni di lavoro e gli schemi di orario di lavoro in futuro.

L’ indagine sulla qualità della vita in Europa (European Quality of Life Survey, EQLS) analizza l’organizzazione dell’orario di lavoro, sia retribuito sia non retribuito, e come incide sulla soddisfazione per l’equilibrio vita-lavoro.

L’organizzazione dell’orario di lavoro può avere un’incidenza significativa sull’efficienza, la produttività e la competitività delle aziende, per non parlare della salute, del benessere e della motivazione dei dipendenti. Con la sua indagine sulle imprese europee (European Company Survey, ECS), Eurofound ha condotto anche una ricerca esaustiva sull’orario di lavoro e l’equilibrio tra vita professionale e vita privata. Ha esaminato la prevalenza di un’organizzazione dell’orario di lavoro flessibile e la contabilità dello stesso, lavoro a tempo parziale, ore di lavoro straordinario e di lavoro atipico; congedi parentali e altri congedi a lungo termine; pensionamento graduale e anticipato; nonché politiche specifiche a sostegno dell’equilibrio vita-lavoro nelle aziende.

Approfondimento: aggiornamento tematico EurWORK sulle domeniche lavorative in Europa

23 settembre 2016 Gli Stati membri dell’UE stanno emanando leggi per regolamentare gli orari di apertura delle attività commerciali di domenica. Tuttavia, vi sono anche Stati membri in cui la nuova normativa limita gli orari di apertura. Secondo l’indagine europea sulle condizioni di lavoro, la proporzione di lavoratori che segnalano domeniche lavorative è aumentata tra il 2010 e il 2015, a sostegno dell’idea che gli acquisti di domenica stanno diventando sempre più prassi comune.
Cosa sta succedendo con le domeniche lavorative in Europa

Risorse

Eurofound research

For many years now, Eurofound has collected information on various aspects of working time and their implications for working conditions and quality of life of men and women in the EU. Eurofound’s studies on working time aim to improve understanding of how long workers work and how their time is organised and the implications of working time patterns for employment, productivity, well-being and the balance between work and private life. Data on collectively agreed working time and the role of the social partners have been published regularly, and have also been analysed from a long-term perspective. Research on men’s working time versus women’s shows that men are much more likely to work longer hours and women are more likely to spend more time doing unpaid domestic work. While most individuals, regardless of their sex, seem to be satisfied with their current working time, the majority of those expressing a preference to change their working time say they would like to reduce their hours.

Regulation and organisation of working time

Regulating working time has a role to play in increasing work–life balance and also labour market participation. In a fast-changing economic climate, companies and workers need flexibility. Eurofound has explored the relationship between working time and work–life balance in a life course perspective.

Research has looked at the various aspects of the organisation of working time and the implications for productivity and working conditions. As the organisation of working time is changing, Eurofound together with the International Labour Organization examined the effects of telework and ICT-mobile work on the working time of those engaged in such work arrangements.

Taking a long-term perspective on working time, Eurofound has examined the evolution of aspects of collectively agreed working time in the EU at the beginning of the 21st century. The research focused in particular on five sectors: chemicals, metalworking, banking, retail and public administration. It described the institutional regimes of working time regulation and assesses changes in agreed working hours and usual working hours between 1999 and 2014.

Eurofound has also looked at the national approaches on how and when breaks from work should be taken. The research compares different approaches among Member States, gives examples of judicial rulings, highlights some types of work that attract special consideration and looks into causal relationships between breaks, health and performance at work.

Research on new ways of working fostered by digitalisation like teleworking and platform work have highlighted the increasing trend towards flexible working with far-reaching implications for the duration and organisation of working time. These aspects are also part of the regulatory debate at EU and national level, for instance wtih the adoption of legislation on the right to disconnect. 

Working time in survey analysis

Eurofound’s three major surveys provide data on issues related to working time.

The European Working Conditions Survey (EWCS) covers working time from various angles. In the 2021 European Working Conditions Telephone Survey (EWCTS), working time arrangements was one of six dimensions of job quality analysed. This dimension includes unsocial work schedules (as a job demand) and working time flexibility (as a job resource). The EWCTS captured four types of working time that are generally regarded as unsocial: regularly working in one’s free time, regularly working at night, working long hours and regularly being required to work at short notice. Flexibility in working hours is positively related to worker’s well-being and supports a healthy balance between their personal and working lives. The EWCTS highlighted the ease with which an individual can take an hour or two off during working hours to attend to a personal matter as an indicator of such flexibility. 

Using EWCS 2015 data, Eurofound has examined working time patterns for sustainable work. The analysis looks at the links between working time patterns, work–life balance and working time preferences, as well as workers’ health and well-being. It also assesses how sustainable the current working conditions and working time patterns are into the future.

The European Quality of Life Survey (EQLS) looks at working time arrangements, both paid and unpaid, and their impact on satisfaction with work–life balance.

Working time arrangements can have a significant bearing on the efficiency, productivity and competitiveness of companies, not to mention the health, well-being and motivation of their employees. Through its European Company Survey (ECS), Eurofound has also carried out comprehensive research on working time and work–life balance. It has looked at the prevalence of flexible working time arrangements and working time accounts, part-time work, overtime and non-standard working hours; parental and other long-term leave; phased and early retirement; as well as specific policies to support work–life balance in companies.

Key outputs

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This report examines the average weekly working hours across Europe in 2021 and 2022. It covers important developments resulting from legislative reforms in collective bargaining at national or sectoral level...

24 Ottobre 2023
Publication
Research report
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Disclaimer: Please note that this report was updated with revised data (specifically for Bulgaria) on 23 March 2021.La presente relazione si propone di valutare l’impatto iniziale della crisi COVID-19 sull’occupazione...

11 Marzo 2021
Publication
Research report

Current and ongoing research

Research continues in this topic on a variety of themes, which are outlined below with links to forthcoming titles.

Eurofound expert(s)

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Jorge Cabrita is a senior research manager in the Working Life unit. He is responsible for formulating, coordinating and managing European-wide research, and promoting the...

Senior research manager,
Working life research unit
Oscar Vargas Llave

Oscar Vargas Llave is a research manager in the Working Life unit at Eurofound and manages projects on changes in the world of work and the impact on working conditions and related...

Research manager,
Working life research unit
Publications results (214)

The European Working Time Directive lays down minimum safety and health requirements for the organisation of working time in the EU by, for example, establishing that all workers have the right to a limit to weekly working time of 48 hours.

12 June 2015

An increasing number of European workers have part-time jobs or non-standard types of work, such as the zero-hours employment contracts that have become common in the UK. Yet most European workers with temporary contracts would like permanent jobs, and one third of people working part time would

14 April 2015

This article presents some of the key developments and research findings on EU level developments in industrial relations and working conditions during the last quarter of 2014. The European Commission's priorities for 2015, the economic outlook for Europe, and issues around working time are the

07 April 2015

The third wave of Eurofound’s European Company Survey was carried out in 2013. It surveyed management representatives in over 24,000 establishments; where available, employee representatives were also interviewed – in 6,800 of these establishments.

27 March 2015

This article presents some of the key developments and research findings on individual employment relations in the EU during the third and fourth quarters of 2014. Employment protection legislation and the termination of employment are the main focus of this report.

06 March 2015

This report gives an overview of working conditions, job quality, workers’ health and job sustainability in the computer programming, consultancy and related activities sector (NACE 62). It is based mostly on the fifth European Working Conditions Survey (EWCS), which gathers data on working

27 February 2015

This report gives an overview of working conditions, job quality, workers’ health and job sustainability in the legal and accounting services sector (NACE 69). It is based mostly on the fifth European Working Conditions Survey (EWCS), which gathers data on working conditions and the quality of work

27 February 2015

This report gives an overview of working conditions, job quality, workers’ health and job sustainability in the real estate sector (NACE 68).1 It is based mostly on the fifth European Working Conditions Survey (EWCS), which gathers data on working conditions and the quality of work across 34

27 February 2015

This report gives an overview of working conditions, job quality, workers’ health and job sustainability in the professional, scientific and technical activities sector (NACE 70, 71, 72, 73, 74 and 75). It is based mostly on the fifth European Working Conditions Survey (EWCS), which gathers data on

27 February 2015

This article presents some of the key developments and research findings on aspects of working time in the EU during the first quarter of 2014. Work–life balance and weekend working are the main focus of this report.

18 February 2015

Online resources results (559)

UK: Survey on well-being and stress of civil servants

Changing patterns of work organisation for civil servants in the UK are examined in a new report based on surveys of union members. Its recommendations could have wider applicability in the public sector because, since the research was undertaken, the right to request flexible working arrangements

Austria: Dispute over doctors' pay in wake of EU working time law

A new agreement on the pay and working time of physicians in Vienna has been overwhelmingly rejected in a ballot of physicians, but the municipal government is reluctant to reopen negotiations.

Greece: Changes to shop opening hours and working time

The introduction of shop opening on seven selected Sundays and every Sunday in 10 pilot areas has been a significant development for the retail sector. It has led to strong opposition from employees and small business employers in the sector, leading to the organisation of joint action, while social

UK: Survey finds unpaid overtime common among school support staff

A survey of more than 15,000 school support staff by the trade union Unison has highlighted widespread concern over low pay and high workloads. The survey, published in November 2014, revealed that almost three-quarters of respondents regularly worked unpaid overtime. Unison is pursuing the issues

Estonia: Identifying ways to improve the parental leave system

This study looked at parental leave schemes and benefits in place in Estonia with a view to assessing how well the existing system meets the needs of parents and employers. The aim was to identify new solutions to support policy development and to suggest ways to change the system to support work

Finland: Working Life Barometer 2013

The Finnish Working Life Barometer is a survey of working conditions from the perspective of employees, conducted annually by the Ministry of Employment and the Economy since 1992. The focus of this article is the 2013 Barometer. It offers a summary of the main findings and an overview of the

Croatia: The new Labour Act

Before the introduction of Croatia's new Labour Act, strict employment protection legislation meant a lack of labour market flexibility. The new law aims to increase the number of employed people, allow employers to develop more flexible business models and adapt to market demands, maintain employee

Sweden: Gothenburg municipality implements 30-hour working week

The municipal council of Gothenburg decided in April 2014 to enact a one-year experiment where they would reduce working hours to 30 hours a week with full pay in at least one city department to evaluate the effects of working time reductions on health, employment and quality of work.


Blogs results (9)

The jury is still out on the question whether men and women are from distinct planets. When it comes to the world of work, however, they are worlds apart.

25 Ottobre 2023
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Europe Day is a celebration of unity, solidarity and harmony. While we may not have had much to celebrate this past year, one thing we can be proud of is how Europe has come together in the face of large-scale challenges and threats, showing that solidarity is the key to resilience and resolve.

8 Maggio 2023
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​​​​​​​To date, close to six million workers in the EU have lost their jobs due to COVID-19. Many businesses have closed their doors forever or been pushed to the brink, bringing severe financial and psychological hardship to the individuals and families affected. However, the toll of the pandemic

9 Febbraio 2021
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The International Labour Organization (ILO) met for the first time 100 years ago, and right at the top of the agenda for discussion for this new specialised UN agency was the 8-hour working day. This discussion subsequently resulted in the Hours of Work (Industry) Convention, which stated that ‘The

12 Novembre 2019
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Unemployment in the EU is continuing to fall, with the rate approaching its 2008 low point. This is good news: the Europe 2020 target of 75% employment in the working age population is now in sight for many Member States. However, as unemployment reaches new lows, the opposite problem is emerging –

19 Novembre 2018
Rethinking working time in Europe

The results of recent research on working time patterns in the EU constitute a strong plea for working time policies that clearly acknowledge the life course perspective. This means that working time must not only be thought and organised in daily, weekly, monthly and/or yearly terms but also take

1 Novembre 2017
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There are limits to the effectiveness of member states’ pension reforms. Europe, it’s often said, is experiencing a worsening ageing crisis. European governments grappling with this and the related unsustainability of many pension schemes have taken measures to keep older workers longer in

26 Settembre 2016
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​Nowadays we all know that long or excessive working hours may have serious negative impacts on a person’s health and wellbeing. Eurofound‘s new report 'Working time developments in the 21st century' suggests that if working time standards are mainly left to legislation or to be set unilaterally by

4 Marzo 2016
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The latest research from Eurofound on working conditions in Europe highlights that the 9-to-5 day is not the norm for many workers, and work commonly spills over into home life. Such patterns make it difficult to balance work and life outside work.

25 Novembre 2015
Data results (20)

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