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Arbetstid

Med arbetstid menas den tid då en arbetstagare arbetar, står till arbetsgivarens förfogande och utför dennes verksamheter eller förpliktelser i enlighet med nationella lagar och/eller nationell praxis. Arbetstimmarna varierar för arbetstagare inom olika yrken eller i olika faser av livet. Kön har en särskild betydelse när det gäller att fastställa dessa skillnader.

Topic

Recent updates

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In this episode of Eurofound Talks Mary McCaughey speaks with Eurofound Research Manager Tina Weber about new research on the right to disconnect, the evolution of the right to disconnect...

Podcast

EU context

Arbetstiden är en mycket viktig aspekt av arbetslivet, och regleringen av denna har varit en central fråga i politiska, ekonomiska och sociala diskussioner på både EU-nivå och nationell nivå. För att skydda arbetstagarnas hälsa och säkerhet kräver EU:s arbetstidsdirektiv att samtliga medlemsstater garanterar miniminormer gällande arbetstid för alla arbetstagare i hela EU. Detta inbegriper normer för begränsning av veckoarbetstiden (48 timmar), minimiperioder för vila och raster, årlig semester, nattarbete och skiftarbete.

Eurofounds arbete

Eurofound har under många år samlat in information om olika arbetstidsaspekter och hur de påverkar arbetsvillkoren och livskvaliteten för män och kvinnor i EU. Eurofounds studier om arbetstid syftar till att förbättra förståelsen för hur denna är organiserad och hur detta påverkar sysselsättningen, produktiviteten, välmåendet och balansen mellan arbetsliv och familjeliv. Data om kollektivt avtalad arbetstid och den roll som spelas av arbetsmarknadens parter har publicerats med jämna mellanrum, och har även nyligen analyserats ur ett långtidsperspektiv. Forskningen om mäns och kvinnors arbetstid visar att män mycket oftare arbetar fler timmar, medan kvinnor i högre grad lägger mer tid på oavlönat hushållsarbete.

Reglera och organisera arbetstiden

Det är viktigt att reglera arbetstiden för att förbättra balansen mellan arbetsliv och privatliv och även arbetsmarknadsdeltagandet. I ett snabbt skiftande ekonomiskt klimat behöver företag och arbetstagare flexibilitet. Eurofound har undersökt kopplingen mellan arbetstid och balansen mellan arbetstid och privatliv ur ett livslångt perspektiv.

Forskarna har tittat på hur arbetstiden organiseras och konsekvenserna för produktiviteten och arbetsvillkoren . Eftersom organisationen av arbetstiden håller på att förändras undersökte nyligen Eurofound tillsammans med Internationella arbetsorganisationen hur distansarbete och internetbaserat arbete påverkar arbetstiden för människor som arbetar enligt sådana arrangemang.

I en studie som nyligen utfördes tittade man på arbetstid ur ett långsiktigt perspektiv och granskade hur aspekterna av kollektivt avtalad arbetstid i EU i början av 2000-talet har utvecklats. Studien är inriktad på fem huvudsakliga sektorer: kemikalier, metallbearbetning, bankväsendet, detaljhandeln och offentlig förvaltning. I rapporten beskrivs de institutionella regleringssystemen och förändringar i fråga om avtalad arbetstid och ”vanlig arbetstid” mellan 1999 och 2014 utvärderas.

Analys av undersökningar om arbetstid

Eurofounds tre stora undersökningar tillhandahåller olika data med anknytning till arbetstid.

Europeiska undersökningen om arbetsvillkor (EWCS) tar sig an frågan om arbetstid ur olika perspektiv. I den sjätte EWCS från 2015 var arbetstidskvalitet en av sju indikatorer på kvalitet i arbetet. Den användes för att mäta hur pass vanligt det är med långa arbetsdagar, möjligheten att ta rast, onormal arbetstid, arbetstidsarrangemang och flexibilitet, samt hur dessa påverkar arbetstagarnas hälsa och välmående. Enligt denna har 43 procent av arbetstagarna mycket regelbundna arbetstider.

Med hjälp av data från den sjätte EWCS har Eurofound nyligen undersökt arbetstidsmönster för hållbart arbete. I analysen tittar man på kopplingarna mellan arbetstidsmönster, balansen mellan arbetsliv och privatliv och arbetstidspreferenser liksom arbetstagarnas hälsa och välmående. I analysen bedöms även hur pass hållbara de aktuella arbetsvillkoren och arbetstidsmönstren kommer att vara i framtiden.

I undersökningen av livskvaliteten i Europa (EQLS) tittar man på arbetstidsarrangemang, både betalda och obetalda, och hur de påverkar i vilken utsträckning arbetstagarna är nöjda med balansen mellan arbetsliv och privatliv.

Arbetstidsarrangemangen kan i hög grad inverka på företagens effektivitet, produktivitet och konkurrenskraft, för att inte tala om deras anställdas hälsa, välmående och motivation. Genom sin europeiska företagsundersökning (ECS) har Eurofound också bedrivit omfattande forskning om arbetstid och balansen mellan arbetsliv och privatliv. Eurofound har tittat på förekomsten av flexibla arbetstidsarrangemang och arbetstidskonton, deltidsarbete, övertid och okonventionella arbetstider, föräldraledighet och annan längre ledighet, gradvis pensionering och förtidspensionering, liksom på specifika strategier vid företag för att stödja balansen mellan arbetsliv och privatliv.

I fokus: EurWORK:s uppdatering om söndagsarbete i Europa

23 september 2016 – EU-medlemsstaterna har antagit lagar för att reglera öppettiderna för butiker och företag på söndagar. Det finns dock även medlemsstater där ny lagstiftning begränsar öppettiderna. Enligt den europeiska undersökningen om arbetsvillkor ökade andelen arbetstagare som rapporterade att de arbetar på söndagar mellan 2010 och 2015, vilket visar att söndagshandeln ökar allt mer.
Söndagsarbete i Europa

Resurser

Eurofound research

For many years now, Eurofound has collected information on various aspects of working time and their implications for working conditions and quality of life of men and women in the EU. Eurofound’s studies on working time aim to improve understanding of how long workers work and how their time is organised and the implications of working time patterns for employment, productivity, well-being and the balance between work and private life. Data on collectively agreed working time and the role of the social partners have been published regularly, and have also been analysed from a long-term perspective. Research on men’s working time versus women’s shows that men are much more likely to work longer hours and women are more likely to spend more time doing unpaid domestic work. While most individuals, regardless of their sex, seem to be satisfied with their current working time, the majority of those expressing a preference to change their working time say they would like to reduce their hours.

Regulation and organisation of working time

Regulating working time has a role to play in increasing work–life balance and also labour market participation. In a fast-changing economic climate, companies and workers need flexibility. Eurofound has explored the relationship between working time and work–life balance in a life course perspective.

Research has looked at the various aspects of the organisation of working time and the implications for productivity and working conditions. As the organisation of working time is changing, Eurofound together with the International Labour Organization examined the effects of telework and ICT-mobile work on the working time of those engaged in such work arrangements.

Taking a long-term perspective on working time, Eurofound has examined the evolution of aspects of collectively agreed working time in the EU at the beginning of the 21st century. The research focused in particular on five sectors: chemicals, metalworking, banking, retail and public administration. It described the institutional regimes of working time regulation and assesses changes in agreed working hours and usual working hours between 1999 and 2014.

Eurofound has also looked at the national approaches on how and when breaks from work should be taken. The research compares different approaches among Member States, gives examples of judicial rulings, highlights some types of work that attract special consideration and looks into causal relationships between breaks, health and performance at work.

Research on new ways of working fostered by digitalisation like teleworking and platform work have highlighted the increasing trend towards flexible working with far-reaching implications for the duration and organisation of working time. These aspects are also part of the regulatory debate at EU and national level, for instance wtih the adoption of legislation on the right to disconnect. 

Working time in survey analysis

Eurofound’s three major surveys provide data on issues related to working time.

The European Working Conditions Survey (EWCS) covers working time from various angles. In the 2021 European Working Conditions Telephone Survey (EWCTS), working time arrangements was one of six dimensions of job quality analysed. This dimension includes unsocial work schedules (as a job demand) and working time flexibility (as a job resource). The EWCTS captured four types of working time that are generally regarded as unsocial: regularly working in one’s free time, regularly working at night, working long hours and regularly being required to work at short notice. Flexibility in working hours is positively related to worker’s well-being and supports a healthy balance between their personal and working lives. The EWCTS highlighted the ease with which an individual can take an hour or two off during working hours to attend to a personal matter as an indicator of such flexibility. 

Using EWCS 2015 data, Eurofound has examined working time patterns for sustainable work. The analysis looks at the links between working time patterns, work–life balance and working time preferences, as well as workers’ health and well-being. It also assesses how sustainable the current working conditions and working time patterns are into the future.

The European Quality of Life Survey (EQLS) looks at working time arrangements, both paid and unpaid, and their impact on satisfaction with work–life balance.

Working time arrangements can have a significant bearing on the efficiency, productivity and competitiveness of companies, not to mention the health, well-being and motivation of their employees. Through its European Company Survey (ECS), Eurofound has also carried out comprehensive research on working time and work–life balance. It has looked at the prevalence of flexible working time arrangements and working time accounts, part-time work, overtime and non-standard working hours; parental and other long-term leave; phased and early retirement; as well as specific policies to support work–life balance in companies.

Key outputs

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This report examines the average weekly working hours across Europe in 2021 and 2022. It covers important developments resulting from legislative reforms in collective bargaining at national or sectoral level...

24 oktober 2023
Publication
Research report
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De strikta folkhälsorestriktioner som många länder införde under 2020 för att få bukt med covid-19-pandemin förändrade tvärt arbetslivet och fortsatte att påverka det under de nästföljande två åren. Mellan mars...

29 november 2022
Publication
Research report
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Denna rapport syftar till att kartlägga och analysera lagstiftning och kollektivförhandlingar om distansarbete i de 27 medlemsstaterna och Norge. Den belyser de största skillnaderna och likheterna mellan länderna när det...

1 september 2022
Publication
Research report
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Disclaimer: Please note that this report was updated with revised data (specifically for Bulgaria) on 23 March 2021.Syftet med denna rapport är att bedöma covid-19-krisens inledande effekter på sysselsättningen i...

11 mars 2021
Publication
Research report

Current and ongoing research

Research continues in this topic on a variety of themes, which are outlined below with links to forthcoming titles.

Eurofound expert(s)

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Jorge Cabrita is a senior research manager in the Working Life unit. He is responsible for formulating, coordinating and managing European-wide research, and promoting the...

Senior research manager,
Working life research unit
Oscar Vargas Llave

Oscar Vargas Llave is a research manager in the Working Life unit at Eurofound and manages projects on changes in the world of work and the impact on working conditions and related...

Research manager,
Working life research unit
Publications results (214)

The European Working Time Directive lays down minimum safety and health requirements for the organisation of working time in the EU by, for example, establishing that all workers have the right to a limit to weekly working time of 48 hours.

12 June 2015

An increasing number of European workers have part-time jobs or non-standard types of work, such as the zero-hours employment contracts that have become common in the UK. Yet most European workers with temporary contracts would like permanent jobs, and one third of people working part time would

14 April 2015

This article presents some of the key developments and research findings on EU level developments in industrial relations and working conditions during the last quarter of 2014. The European Commission's priorities for 2015, the economic outlook for Europe, and issues around working time are the

07 April 2015

The third wave of Eurofound’s European Company Survey was carried out in 2013. It surveyed management representatives in over 24,000 establishments; where available, employee representatives were also interviewed – in 6,800 of these establishments.

27 March 2015

This article presents some of the key developments and research findings on individual employment relations in the EU during the third and fourth quarters of 2014. Employment protection legislation and the termination of employment are the main focus of this report.

06 March 2015

This report gives an overview of working conditions, job quality, workers’ health and job sustainability in the computer programming, consultancy and related activities sector (NACE 62). It is based mostly on the fifth European Working Conditions Survey (EWCS), which gathers data on working

27 February 2015

This report gives an overview of working conditions, job quality, workers’ health and job sustainability in the legal and accounting services sector (NACE 69). It is based mostly on the fifth European Working Conditions Survey (EWCS), which gathers data on working conditions and the quality of work

27 February 2015

This report gives an overview of working conditions, job quality, workers’ health and job sustainability in the real estate sector (NACE 68).1 It is based mostly on the fifth European Working Conditions Survey (EWCS), which gathers data on working conditions and the quality of work across 34

27 February 2015

This report gives an overview of working conditions, job quality, workers’ health and job sustainability in the professional, scientific and technical activities sector (NACE 70, 71, 72, 73, 74 and 75). It is based mostly on the fifth European Working Conditions Survey (EWCS), which gathers data on

27 February 2015

This article presents some of the key developments and research findings on aspects of working time in the EU during the first quarter of 2014. Work–life balance and weekend working are the main focus of this report.

18 February 2015

Online resources results (559)

Germany: Labour Minister launches White Paper on the future of work

Federal Labour Minister Andrea Nahles launched a White Paper at the end of November on the future of work, including the controversial issue of working time regulation. Both employers and workers’ representatives favour more flexibility than is allowed by current regulations that stipulate an eight

Bulgaria: CITUB analyses violations of labour rights in 2015

Trade union confederation CITUB has drawn up proposals for amendments to Bulgaria’s Labour Code based on its survey of common code violations. The survey found that almost half of all violations involve the calculation of total working time, which is often used by employers as an opportunity to hide

Norway: Latest working life developments – Q3 2016

A series of strikes related to the biennial renegotiation of national collective agreements, an increase in temporary employment and the changing use of occupational health services are the main topics of interest in this article. This country update reports on the latest developments in working

United Kingdom: Latest working life developments – Q3 2016

The Prime Minister’s statements on Brexit at the Conservative Party conference, labour market developments and the latest developments in the junior doctors’ dispute are the main topics of interest in this article. This country update reports on the latest developments in working life in the United

Luxembourg: Latest working life developments – Q3 2016

Disputes over sector-level collective bargaining, changes to the bill on parental leave and working time legislation are the main topics of interest in this article. This country update reports on the latest developments in working life in Luxembourg in the third quarter of 2016.

Poland: Latest working life developments – Q3 2016

A protest in the public healthcare system, discontent in the education sector, significant legislative initiatives and support for a ban on Sunday shop opening are the main topics of interest in this article. This country update reports on the latest developments in working life in Poland in the

France: Latest working life developments – Q3 2016

Adoption of a major labour law reform, problems over negotiations on the national collective agreement on unemployment insurance and the continuing fight against the illegal posting of workers are the main topics of interest in this article. This country update reports on the latest developments in

Germany: Latest findings from DGB Good Work Index

The German Confederation of Trade Unions (DGB) introduced the DGB Good Work Index in 2007 as a measurement tool, based on data from an annual survey, for monitoring quality of work. This article describes the background to the DGB Good Work Index, the most recent findings and the debate around the

Finland: Tripartite Competitiveness Pact signed

The ‘Competitiveness Pact’, a tripartite labour market agreement, was signed in June 2016 after over a year of difficult negotiations. The Pact involves a nationally and internationally exceptional deterioration of workers’ terms and conditions. The negotiation process had disruptive repercussions

Norway: Latest working life developments – Q2 2016

Rising unemployment, the biennial renegotiation of nationwide collective agreements and proposed changes to legislation on temporary layoffs, working time and whistle-blowing are the main topics of interest in this article. This country update reports on the latest developments in working life in


Blogs results (9)

The jury is still out on the question whether men and women are from distinct planets. When it comes to the world of work, however, they are worlds apart.

25 oktober 2023
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Europe Day is a celebration of unity, solidarity and harmony. While we may not have had much to celebrate this past year, one thing we can be proud of is how Europe has come together in the face of large-scale challenges and threats, showing that solidarity is the key to resilience and resolve.

8 maj 2023
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​​​​​​​To date, close to six million workers in the EU have lost their jobs due to COVID-19. Many businesses have closed their doors forever or been pushed to the brink, bringing severe financial and psychological hardship to the individuals and families affected. However, the toll of the pandemic c

9 februari 2021
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The International Labour Organization (ILO) met for the first time 100 years ago, and right at the top of the agenda for discussion for this new specialised UN agency was the 8-hour working day. This discussion subsequently resulted in the Hours of Work (Industry) Convention, which stated that ‘The

12 november 2019
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Unemployment in the EU is continuing to fall, with the rate approaching its 2008 low point. This is good news: the Europe 2020 target of 75% employment in the working age population is now in sight for many Member States. However, as unemployment reaches new lows, the opposite problem is emerging –

19 november 2018
Rethinking working time in Europe

The results of recent research on working time patterns in the EU constitute a strong plea for working time policies that clearly acknowledge the life course perspective. This means that working time must not only be thought and organised in daily, weekly, monthly and/or yearly terms but also take i

1 november 2017
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There are limits to the effectiveness of member states’ pension reforms. Europe, it’s often said, is experiencing a worsening ageing crisis. European governments grappling with this and the related unsustainability of many pension schemes have taken measures to keep older workers longer in employmen

26 september 2016
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​Nowadays we all know that long or excessive working hours may have serious negative impacts on a person’s health and wellbeing. Eurofound‘s new report 'Working time developments in the 21st century' suggests that if working time standards are mainly left to legislation or to be set unilaterally by

4 mars 2016
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The latest research from Eurofound on working conditions in Europe highlights that the 9-to-5 day is not the norm for many workers, and work commonly spills over into home life. Such patterns make it difficult to balance work and life outside work.

25 november 2015
Data results (26)

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