Key findings

By early 2024, the pandemic was long over, yet its impact continued to leave a lasting effect on many Europeans. Many continue to struggle with ongoing health issues, poor mental health well-being, the loss of their business, interrupted studies and weakened social connections. Conversely, others have taken advantage of new opportunities, such as working from home and new ways of providing services, for example using online platforms. However, over the past two years, Europe has been grappling with a series of new intersecting crises. The war in Ukraine, rising utility costs and the overall increase in the cost of living have all exacerbated existing challenges, such as housing shortages, climate change and demographic shifts in several countries.

Eurofound’s e-survey captures the situation of European respondents and their post-pandemic concerns. The latest results provide the following insights:

Increases in the cost of living continue to be the main concern for respondents across the EU, with low and middle-income households particularly impacted. These households struggle more with making ends meet and affording energy, housing and leisure expenses compared to 2023. 

The decrease in working from home, observed in each round of the e-survey since the end of the pandemic, has continued in 2024. There are significant country differences: in some countries, hybrid working in teleworkable occupations is common, suggesting that company policies have introduced permanent rules around teleworking. In other countries, hybrid work has become less frequent, as more respondents return to working fulltime at the workplace. 

Trust in institutions, such as the EU, national governments and healthcare systems, has remained relatively stable since the end of the pandemic, at least on average among EU respondents. However, there has been a slight decline in trust toward the EU and satisfaction with democracy compared to 2023 levels. While trust in national governments has shown a consistent decline over the past four years, trust in the EU has remained stable overall.

The deterioration of mental well-being continues, with respondents reporting lower mental health scores. This apparent decline in mental health is visible across all age groups, except those aged 65 or over. 

Unmet healthcare needs continue to affect respondents, especially those aged 50–64 and those in low-income households. Older respondents report greater difficulty accessing hospital and specialist services, while younger respondents most frequently cite unmet mental health service needs. 

Respondents with disabilities report lower levels of well-being compared to others. However, their life satisfaction scores increase when individuals are aged 65 or over, are employed and have a high income.

Respondents with disabilities are far more likely to live in households facing difficulties making ends meet compared to those without disabilities. In fact, the gap between these groups has widened since 2021. 

Respondents with disabilities are more likely to experience unmet medical needs, especially those who struggle to make ends meet. Cost is the most frequently cited barrier for accessing healthcare services among this group. 

In April 2020, Eurofound launched its Living, working and COVID-19 e-survey across the European Union, not knowing how long the newly reported coronavirus disease (COVID-19) would be around, whether a vaccination would be developed, or what would be the overall impact of the pandemic.

To date, seven rounds of the e-survey have been fielded, resulting in the collection of responses from over 250,000 people. Thanks to this large-scale, pan-European participation, Eurofound has been able to investigate the impact of the pandemic on the well-being, health and safety, work and telework, work–life balance and financial situation of Europeans.

Rounds 1–6 of Eurofound’s e-survey were referred to as the Living, working and COVID-19 e-survey. By 2023, the e-survey series was rebranded as the Living and Working in the EU e-survey, marking a transition from pandemic-related impacts to ongoing challenges and trends shaping the quality of life across the EU. This factsheet outlines the most recent data on the main challenges faced by Europeans, with a particular emphasis on the rising cost of living, health and mental health, access to healthcare services, work–life balance, and changes in telework opportunities. 

Data are collected through non-probability sampling methods, with respondents invited to complete the e-survey through a series of advertisements on social media platforms. Due to the nature of data collection, the e-survey is not representative of the entire population. People who do not use the internet, do not use social media or were not invited by another participant cannot be reached by the e-survey. As respondents self-select by clicking on advertisements, the sample is biased. Known biases, such as the overrepresentation of workers, people with higher education, people aged 50–64, and, to a smaller extent, women, are identified and corrected using weighting. However, other biases – such as no access to social media or disinterest in e-survey participation – are unknown and remain uncorrected. For this reason, while this factsheet summarises the views of respondents across different rounds of the e-survey, it may not fully reflect trends across the whole population during the same period.

In the first half of 2024, the global economy continued to experience significant fluctuations in inflation and the cost of living. After substantial price increases in 2022 and 2023, the EU headline inflation rate, which reached 11.5% in October 2022 and stood at 8.1% in April 2023, dropped to 2.6% by April 2024 [Eurostat, prc_hicp_manr]. Core inflation, which excludes volatile components such as food, alcohol, tobacco and energy, also fell from 6.5% to 3.0% between April 2023 and April 2024 [Eurostat, prc_hicp_manr]. Despite these improvements, several EU countries remained close to recession in early 2024, as high interest rates and elevated real price levels continue to strain households.  

Increasing difficulties making ends meet

In 2024, more respondents of the e-survey reported difficulties making ends meet compared to the previous year, with 30% of respondents saying it was difficult or very difficult to make ends meet, up from 22% in 2023. Additionally, 10% of respondents missed rent or mortgage payments, and 15% reported arrears in utility bills – both figures reflecting increases from the previous year (Figure 1).  

When asked about future expectations, more respondents expected difficulties compared to 2023, though this was a lower proportion than in 2022 when the war in Ukraine and the price of utilities were top concerns. These findings suggest that households are still bearing the impact of sustained price increases, despite improvements in economic indicators. 

Rising financial difficulties among low- and medium-income households 

The increase in financial difficulties particularly affected respondents from low- and medium-income households, with those in the lowest income category (defined as the lowest three income deciles within their country) experiencing the largest increases in difficulties making ends meet, arrears in rent, mortgage or utility payments, and expectations of future financial difficulties (Figure 2). 

Impact of inflation 

At the country level, there is a weak positive correlation between the change in the proportion of low-income households reporting difficulties making ends meet and core inflation measured since the previous round of the e-survey in 2023 (Figure 3). Low-income respondents in Hungary, where core inflation remained unusually high in early 2024, were the most likely to report increasing difficulties. 

Middle and younger age groups face financial strain 

In 2024, individuals in middle and younger age groups faced increasing difficulties making ends meet, with a 12-percentage-point increase among those aged 50–64, and a smaller but significant increase among those under 50. No significant increase in difficulties making ends meet was observed among those aged 65 or over.

However, when it comes to arrears in rent, mortgages and utilities, increases in difficulties were seen among respondents of all age groups, but were higher among those already facing difficulties making ends meet. Notably, financial difficulties increased among women aged 50–64 (from 26% to 42%) and women aged 35–49 (from 24% to 37%).

Among Member States, the highest proportions of respondents with difficulties making ends meet were found in Greece, Croatia and Estonia (Figure 4). Greece also had the highest proportion of respondents saying that they might need to leave their accommodation in the coming months because they can no longer afford it (22%), followed by Cyprus (19%), and Estonia, Finland and Latvia (16%).

Unaffordable everyday expenses

As making ends meet has become more difficult, more respondents in 2024 reported being unable to afford certain items or activities compared to 2023. The most common unaffordable expenses included new furniture, leisure activities, holidays, having a small amount of money to spend on yourself each week and getting together with family or friends at least once a month. Among these, the largest increases in unaffordability were seen in leisure activities and holidays, particularly among middle-age groups (35–49 and 50–64), who already had the highest proportion of people unable to afford these activities (Figure 5). In contrast, there was less change in the unaffordability of more essential items, such as clothes, shoes, heating and nutritious meals.

Declining remote work opportunities

When the COVID-19 pandemic reshaped the economy, it had a significant impact on work–life balance and the ability to work from home. At the time, it seemed that remote work, at least in part, would become a long-term norm. The pandemic accelerated the adoption of technologies that increased the productivity of remote work, and these new skills and tools continue to be used.

However, since 2023, several signs suggest that opportunities for remote work are decreasing. According to LinkedIn data, the number of remote positions advertised has decreased significantly, despite continued high demand for such roles, indicating a supply–demand mismatch (Fortune, 2022). Eurofound’s 2024 e-survey findings appear to confirm these global trends within EU Member States.

Fewer remote work opportunities for both women and men

In the post-pandemic years, the proportion of women working exclusively from home has decreased from 14% to 10% since 2022, while for men it has dropped from 10% to 7% (Figure 6). Hybrid work remains somewhat more common, with more men than women able to avail of it. For the first time, the e-survey recorded more women than men working entirely at the workplace.

Decline in remote-only teleworkable jobs

When considering only jobs that respondents deem teleworkable, there has been a steady decline in remote-only jobs, from 24% in 2022 to 14% in 2024 (Figure 7).

Increased work worries outside working hours

During the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, 30% of respondents reported always or frequently worrying about work outside of working hours (Figure 10). This figure declined to 24% in 2022 and 2023, but then sharply rose again to 30% in 2024, matching the pandemic peak. Interestingly, the percentage of respondents who felt their work always or most of the time prevented them from spending time with family was at its lowest during the pandemic in 2020, at 19%, but has since risen to a peak of 30% in 2024. This suggests a potential increase in work intensity since the pandemic began and may also reflect the decrease in people working from home.

During the pandemic, the impact of the ability to work from home on work–life balance was mixed. The boundaries between work and home life became increasingly blurred, leading to higher workloads and longer working hours, particularly for women, who reported greater levels of work–life conflict in previous rounds of the e-survey. Women also spent more time on housework and childcare, which further decreased during the pandemic, especially for mothers teleworking with young children (Eurofound and ETF, 2022).

However, now that childcare places and schools have reopened, the ability to work from home offers opportunities for greater flexibility and improved work–life balance for parents. This may be one of the reasons for the continued preference to work from home. In the meantime, several work–life balance policies have been introduced in the EU, particularly the Work–Life Balance Directive, which focuses on carers and addressing inequalities in care responsibilities between women and men (Eurofound, 2024).

Declining trust in institutions

In recent years, trust in institutions within the EU has declined. This trend is linked to the rising cost of living, which particularly affects lower- and middle-income households, as well as the spread of unreliable news sources (Eurofound, 2022). The decline in trust during the pandemic years also impacted individuals who previously expressed higher levels of trust, such as those in financially secure positions.

In the 2024 e-survey, respondents rated their trust in institutions on a scale of 1 to 10. Trust in the EU has slightly decreased since 2023 but remains higher than in the years before the pandemic (Figure 11). Trust in national governments remains, on average, significantly lower than trust in the EU, with levels for the latter remaining relatively unchanged since 2023. Notably, there are significant national differences, influenced by recent elections.

Trust in healthcare systems and the police has remained stable over the past year, although the levels of trust in these institutions remain below the trust levels measured at the beginning of the pandemic, potentially reflecting reactions to the crisis response.

Generational differences in institutional trust

Among e-survey respondents, young people trust the EU more than older groups, although the decrease in trust was higher among them than among older groups. When it comes to the government and the healthcare system, respondents aged 65 or over had the highest level of trust across the age groups (Figure 12).

Interpersonal trust and trust in media

Respondents were asked to rate their interpersonal trust on a scale of 1 to 10, where 1 means ‘you can’t be too careful when dealing with people’ and 10 means ‘most people can be trusted’. Interpersonal trust has declined slightly since 2023, returning to levels seen in 2022 (Figure 13). Interpersonal trust is highest among the oldest (5.4) and youngest (5.1) age groups, while middle-age groups report lower levels of trust.

Trust in the traditional news media has fluctuated in recent years, while trust in social media has steadily declined since 2021, when the question was first asked. Trust in the news media is highest among young people (4.5), whereas trust in social media remains relatively low across most age groups. The highest levels of trust in social media are found among both the oldest (3.3) and the youngest (3.2) age groups, with the lowest levels reported by those aged 35–49 (2.9).

Over the past five years, significant changes in health and mental well-being have been observed in the EU, with notable differences across gender and age groups. Mental well-being was at its lowest levels across all age groups in 2021, during the second (or in some countries, third) lockdown, as measured by the e-survey. This decline was particularly prominent among young people and those who lost their jobs. Women, particularly young adults aged 18–24, consistently reported poorer mental health than men.

Mental well-being

The proportion of people reporting frequently feeling tense or anxious, lonely, or downhearted and depressed (together referred to as 'negative affect') over the previous two weeks increased between 2023 and 2024 across all age groups, except for those aged 65 or over (Figure 14).

Unmet needs for healthcare

Unmet healthcare needs have been a significant concern over the past five years in the EU. Specialist care, dental care and mental health care are the most commonly reported unmet needs.

In 2024, over 25% of respondents indicated that they were unable to access healthcare at some point in the past 12 months, while 22% reported currently having a healthcare issue for which they cannot access treatments or tests. Those aged 50–64 were most likely to have a current unaddressed medical need.

Barriers to accessing healthcare

When reflecting on the past year, waiting time was most frequently reported as a barrier to healthcare access, followed by the availability of tests or treatments, and cost (Figure 15). Around a quarter of respondents noted that not having enough time to visit the doctor was a significant problem, while a similar proportion indicated that distance was also a barrier.

When respondents were asked about their current unmet healthcare needs, hospital or specialist care was most commonly mentioned, followed by mental health care and dental care. Hospital and specialist services were most frequently mentioned by older groups, particularly those aged 65 or over, while younger people aged 16–34 identified mental health services as their most common unmet need.

Among those who indicated dental care as something currently inaccessible, 75% indicated that cost was a difficulty for them over the past year (Table 2). A lower proportion of respondents (36%) mentioned cost as a barrier for those currently awaiting hospital treatment, likely because these treatments are often covered by health insurance schemes. For access to hospital or specialist services, the most common issue was waiting time (62%). Among respondents unable to access mental health services, both cost (64%) and waiting time (81%) were reported as significant barriers to access over the past year.

Labour shortages in healthcare

Labour shortages in the healthcare sector have been evident since before the COVID-19 pandemic, but have become more urgent in recent years (Eurofound, 2023). With an ageing population, these shortages are expected to increase sharply in the future, creating additional unmet healthcare needs, particularly putting pressure on the areas of hospital or specialist care, mental health services and dental care.

Since 2021, the e-survey has included two questions that makes it possible to compare the situation of respondents with and without disabilities. In line with what official statistics report, for the sampled e-survey respondents, having a disability significantly lowers well-being. The following section provides a more detailed exploration of this relationship.

Life satisfaction

When compared to respondents without disabilities, respondents with disabilities consistently report lower average life satisfaction levels, a trend observed across all rounds of the e-survey. In 2024, their average life satisfaction score is 1.2 points lower than that of respondents without disabilities. While the life satisfaction of individuals with disabilities is slightly higher in 2024 than it was in 2021, the gap between respondents without disabilities has worsened (Figure 19).

A regression analysis specifically for respondents with disabilities was conducted to assess life satisfaction. Focusing on respondents with disabilities reveals that age strongly influences life satisfaction levels within this group. Respondents aged 65 years or over with a disability report life satisfaction ratings that are 1.5 points higher than those aged 40–54 sharing similar characteristics. Being between 16 and 29 years old also has a positive impact on life satisfaction, increasing the score by 0.3 points. This suggests that living with a disability is particularly challenging for middle-aged respondents. It should be noted that the likelihood of having a disability increases with age. For instance, in 2022, 7% of those aged 16–19 had a disability, compared to 52% of those aged 65 or over (European Commission, 2024).

Income is a particularly crucial variable in determining the life satisfaction score. The highest income group sees an increase of 1.0 in life satisfaction, while the lowest income group experiences a decrease of 0.8 points.

Employment status also plays a key role. Unemployed respondents with disabilities report life satisfaction scores that are 1.0 lower than those of employed or self-employed respondents sharing similar characteristics. Being inactive reduces the score by 0.5 points.

Other sociodemographic characteristics also impact life satisfaction for people with disabilities, including not being a man (-0.1), having a tertiary education (+0.4) or living with a partner (+0.3).

Mental well-being

Individuals with disabilities have significantly lower mental well-being. Throughout the e-survey, the WHO-5 mental well-being score for respondents with disabilities has consistently been far below the 50-point threshold, the point at which a person is considered at risk of depression (Figure 20). The latest 2024 e-survey shows the score to date.

In contrast, the average WHO-5 scores for respondents without disabilities have remained relatively stable, hovering around the 50-point mark. In 2024, the gap between respondents with and without disabilities on the WHO-5 index is the largest since the e-survey began comparing results for both groups (in 2024, the gap is 16 points compared to 12 points in 2023).

Respondents with disabilities also report lower well-being across other indicators, such as feeling lonely, depressed or tense over the previous two weeks (Figure 21). In 2024, 43% of respondents with disabilities stated that they felt depressed (compared to 22% for those without disabilities), 39% felt lonely (compared to 22%) and 51% felt tense (compared to 32%). Compared to 2021, the situation has generally improved for individuals without disabilities, while those with disabilities tend to feel more tense, a little less lonely and report similar levels of feeling depressed.

Financial situation

Respondents with disabilities are far more likely to live in households facing difficulties making ends meet, with nearly 4 out of 10 reporting difficulties, compared to just over 2 out of 10 respondents without disabilities. Furthermore, the gap between the two groups is the largest to date and has increased from 12 percentage points in 2021 to 17 percentage points in 2024 (Figure 22).

While the proportion of respondents without disabilities reporting arrears has remained steady at 12% compared to 2021, the proportion of respondents with disabilities experiencing arrears has risen from 16% to 19%. For example, arrears in utilities show a notable increase among respondents with disabilities, reflecting a growing disparity between the two groups (Figure 23).

Unmet need for healthcare

With lower mental well-being and more precarious financial situations, many respondents with disabilities report difficulties meeting their medical needs. This is particularly the case for those living in households that have difficulty making ends meet: 56% of this group report unmet medical needs, compared to 29% who can make ends meet (Figure 24).

Certain groups, such as women (42%), those aged 35–64 (45%) and those not working (42%), report higher proportions of having unmet medical needs.

When asked why they had unmet medical needs, respondents with disabilities were more likely to report that they could not afford care (56% compared to 44% of respondents without disabilities), and more often cited that healthcare was too far to travel (27% compared to 18%). In contrast, respondents without disabilities more frequently reported being unable to take time off work or having concerns about contracting COVID-19.

Optimism about the future

As shown in the previous section, respondents without disabilities are more likely to be optimistic about their future. For respondents with disabilities, key factors contributing to optimism include youth (31% of young people with disabilities report being optimistic), the ability to make ends meet (31%), and being employed (25%) (Figure 25).

Conversely, other characteristics negatively impact the optimism of individuals with disabilities, such as having difficulty making ends meet (8% are optimistic), being aged 35–64 (18%) and being a woman (20%).

A regression analysis specifically for respondents with disabilities was conducted to assess optimism about their future. Among individuals with disabilities, certain variables may have a stronger influence on optimism about their future. For instance, compared to a person with a medium income sharing the same characteristics, having a high income increases the likelihood of being optimistic by 11 percentage points. Conversely, having a low income reduces the likelihood of being optimistic by 6 percentage points.

Furthermore, being unemployed has the most significant impact on reducing optimism among individuals with disabilities – unemployed individuals in this group are 13 percentage points less likely to be optimistic.

Individuals aged 65 years or over are more likely to be optimistic, with an increase of 12 percentage points compared to those aged 40–54. Similarly, those aged 16–29 are 10 percentage points more likely to be optimistic.

Individuals with disabilities who live with a partner are also more likely to be optimistic (+7 percentage points), as are men (+4 percentage points) and those with a tertiary education (+8 percentage points).