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Gender equality refers to equality between women and men with respect to their rights, treatment, responsibilities, opportunities, and economic and social achievements. Gender equality is achieved when men and women have the same rights, responsibilities and opportunities across all sections of society and when the different interests, needs and priorities of men and women are equally valued.
Based on Eurofound's work on this topic, a number of policy pointers can be suggested.
Two out of three net new jobs in the EU over the last two decades have been taken up by women. While the gender employment gap has narrowed in recent decades, women continue to participate less than men in the labour market.
The gender pay gap means that women, on average, earn 14.1% less per hour than men. The pay gap has reduced in around two-thirds of Member States.
Eurofound adopts a gender mainstreaming approach systematically in its research. Where possible and relevant, research findings, including surveys and policy analyses, disaggregate data by gender. Other research projects provide specific analysis relevant to gender equality. The research covers a wider variety of topics from a gender perspective, such as pay and income, minimum wage, care, employment participation, leave, skills and training, work organisation, job quality, working time, work–life balance and social cohesion and convergence, including in pan-European surveys and regular reporting at national level.
Listen to or watch a recording of our International Women's Day 2023 podcast on the work–life challenges of women and men.
The COVID-19 pandemic risks rolling back years of progress on gender equality. Eurofound’s e-survey Living, working and COVID-19 offers an insight into the impact of the pandemic on the lives of EU citizens. Conducted in five rounds during 2020, 2021 and 2022, it allows for comparison of the challenges that arose during the different stages of living through the pandemic. Findings show that COVID-19 has impacted gender equality at home. The pandemic has significantly increased the number of teleworkers in Europe, and women were more likely to work from home during the pandemic than men. Furthermore, the closure of schools and childcare facilities during confinement disproportionately impacted women, who generally assumed greater domestic and care responsibilities.
The findings also reveal a general deterioration of work–life balance among workers in the EU with more women and men reporting work–life conflicts, but women who have to telework and care for small children appear to be struggling most. The percentage of women reporting difficulties was higher in April 2020 than in previous Eurofound surveys. Women are also reporting greater financial strain than men during the pandemic. The COVID-19 survey questionnaire drew on questions used in Eurofound’s pan-European surveys, the European Quality of Life Survey (EQLS) and the European Working Conditions Survey (EWCS).
Eurofound's EU PolicyWatch database collates and maps the national-level policy responses across Europe to the COVID-19 crisis, the war in Ukraine and rising inflation. Some of these measures have a gender dimension.
Eurofound research explores the characteristics and consequences of gender gaps in labour market participation, as well as policies and measures aimed at fostering female labour market participation. Women’s employment and participation rates are still lower than those of men in almost all EU Member States. Eurofound has estimated the cost of this gender employment gap in the EU at more than €320 billion in 2018. Although the cost of the gap is falling, the economic loss is still significantly high. Research also looks at upward convergence in the gender employment gap, assessing which are the best and worst-performing Member States in this regard.
The European Jobs Monitor (EJM) tracks structural change in European labour markets in terms of occupation and sector, giving a qualitative assessment of these shifts using various proxies of job quality. This monitoring includes analysis of patterns of employment change by gender and by job-wage quintile, as well as labour market segregation.
Eurofound research covers a range of topics linking wages and gender, such as variable pay, performance-related pay, low pay and the gender pay gap. Survey research looks at earnings as one of seven indicators of job quality for men and women at work. On minimum wages, an annual review monitors the level of minimum wages across Europe, also measuring coverage rates of workers by gender in 2019 and the link with the gender pay gap. Furthermore, the EJM analyses the extent to which different jobs, occupations and sectors contribute to the gender pay gap. This will be useful for the interpretation of the Commission’s social scoreboard’s indicator on the gender pay gap and for the implementation of the gender-equality principle of the European Pillar of Social Rights.
Eurofound reviewed the first experiences of countries with gender pay transparency measures in 2018. At the Commission’s request, Eurofound has initiated an ad hoc study on measures to promote gender pay transparency in companies, looking at how much they cost and whether companies can see any opportunities. This will feed into the Commission’s impact assessment.
Eurofound’s European Working Conditions Survey (EWCS) covers a range of aspects of working conditions from a gender perspective. In recent questionnaires, gender mainstreaming has been an important topic. The survey monitors occupational, sectoral, time and pay gaps, as well as working time patterns, work–life balance, violence and harassment at work, and health and well-being, including what all this means for sustainable work. The European Working Conditions Telephone Survey (EWCTS) 2021 analysed the multiple dimensions of job quality, comparing the situation in the Member States also by gender.
EWCS analysis will help to inform policies aimed at closing gender gaps in the area of job and employment quality. The knowledge provided is relevant for the principle of gender equality and initiatives to improve work–life balance, as well as those included in the context of the European Pillar of Social Rights and implementation of the European Gender Equality Strategy.
Research also looks at the experience of women in management roles and how their underrepresentation in management can be addressed. It analyses the job quality of both male and female managers, and the impact a management job has on personal life.
Other research analyses the level of female entrepreneurship in Europe and the market gap when it comes to investing in women-led enterprises. It examines the financial hurdles facing female entrepreneurs and the use of private or public funds to invest in this group. In addition, it investigates the prevalence of public finance tools and public support schemes that effectively remove barriers and enable women to become competent entrepreneurs.
The higher participation of women in the labour market has prompted changes in the way European social partner organisations tackle gender issues. Research has also assessed the role of the EU social partners in advancing gender equality, exploring actions taken within the different national frameworks of industrial relations and against the ranking of Member States on EIGE’s Gender Equality Index.
Moreover, Eurofound has worked on a joint project with the International Labour Organization (ILO) to look at working conditions in a global perspective. It expands on gender gaps across the world (1.2 billion workers) and provides evidence on the gendered differences in job quality and on higher risk of women to be exposed to sexual violence; the latter is also identified in EWCS 2015.
The European Quality of Life Survey (EQLS) also covers the gender dimension, in relation to issues such as employment, income, risk of poverty, household composition and well-being, education, family and care responsibilities, health and work–life balance.
Both the EWCS and EQLS data contribute to the policy debate on reconciliation issues and work–life balance for men and women. The EQLS looks at the difference between men and women in their levels of life satisfaction or happiness. The gendered division of unpaid work, in relation to for example childcare or caring for elderly relatives, is also covered in the EQLS.
Research on patterns of social mobility for men and women across the EU looks at barriers to equal opportunities and policies to promote it. It highlights the increasingly important gendered patterns of social mobility in different countries.
Eurofound cooperates with the European Institute for Gender Equality (EIGE) on gender-related topics. Eurofound is a key data provider for EIGE’s Gender Equality Index and is involved in the working group for this indicator. Following on for a number of collaborations in 2022, other areas for cooperation between the two Agencies in 2023 include research related to the impact of the transition to a carbon neutral economy, as well as that on care, the working life of essential workers, the impact of the war against Ukraine from a gender perspective and in relation to integration of refugees, the socioeconomic impact of COVID-19 on women and gender equality, and platform work.
Gender equality is a core value of the EU, a fundamental right, a critical component of economic growth and a key principle of the European Pillar of Social Rights. In this light, the EU has been making progress in the gender equality field over the past decades, albeit at a slow pace. The Gender Equality Index score for the EU in 2023 is 70.2 points out of 100, surpassing 70 points for the first time. This is an improvement of 1.6 points since the 2022 edition and the highest year-on-year increase since 2013. Two decades into the 21st century, gender inequalities persist in many areas, including in employment, working conditions and quality of life. As part of the European Commission’s work programme, gender equality remains an important policy priority, with the goal being to roll out the European Gender Equality Strategy.
On 5 March 2020, the Commission launched a new Gender Equality Strategy 2020–2025. The Strategy’s main topics are: violence against women; pay transparency and the gender pay gap; gender balance on company boards; and work–life balance. It is also guided by the vision of ‘a Europe where women and men are free to pursue their chosen path in life, where they have equal opportunities to thrive, and where they can equally participate in and lead our European society’. As one of the first deliverables of the Strategy, the Commission presented a proposal for a pay transparency directive on 4 March 2021, which was backed by the European Parliament on 5 April 2022. The Parliament, EU Council and Commission reached a provisional agreement on the directive on 30 November 2022. The Council adopted the directive on 24 April 2023.
In October 2023, the European Parliament holds its fourth European Gender Equality Week, at the initiative of the Women’s Rights and Gender Equality Committee (FEMM). During the week, the European Institute for Gender Equality (EIGE) also publishes the findings of its Gender Equality Index 2023.
The COVID-19 pandemic has had vast implications on health, well-being, quality of life, the labour market and the economy. It has also had a multifaceted impact on gender equality at work and at home. Promoting gender equality is at the heart of the EU policy response to the crisis, in line with the Gender Equality Strategy.
Eurofound’s work on gender equality links in with the Commission’s 2019–2024 priorities on an economy that works for people and a new push for European democracy. Eurofound has contributed in the recent past to the EU initiative on work–life balance and on the pay transparency initiative.
Related data and resources on this topic are linked below.
